Preliminaries on Nuristani comparative reconstruction: Consonant clusters

In this post, we explore the historical development of consonant clusters in the Nuristani languages. The last two posts covered single consonant and vowel correspondences. However, similar to vowel developments, consonant clusters have not received much attention before Halfmann (2025)'s recent book on the position of the Nuristani languages.

This post will attempt to find regular reflexes of Proto-Indo-Iranian consonant clusters in the Nuristani languages. Some of these were already discussed by Halfmann (2025). Due to lack of information, not all Proto-Indo-Iranian consonant clusters are represented here, though that may change with further research.

Sound correspondences

We will start with normative (excluding conditioned reflexes) consonant cluster correspondences for the Nuristani languages, based on clearly inherited forms. For practical reasons, only attested forms alongside a Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction will be cited below. Richard Strand's website (https://nuristan.info/lngFrameL.html) will be used alongside sources for Ashkun (Morgenstierne 1929, 1934), Katë (Halfmann 2024), Prasun (Buddruss & Degener 2017), Nuristani Kalasha (Degener 1998, Tāza 2017), and Tregami (Morgenstierne 1952, Degener 2022). Orthography may be inconsistent, so different letters may represent the same phoneme (eg. v/w and â/ā in NKal.) When orthography is uncertain, the symbols <> are used to indicate the word being written on the source (except Halfmann 2024, Buddruss & Degener 2017, and Tāza 2017). Not all Nuristani dialects are listed for the sake of simplicity. 

M = Masegal dialect, T = Titin dialect, S = Sama/Wama dialect

W = Western dialect, NE = Northeastern dialect, SE = Southeastern dialect

Wg = Waigal dialect, Zh = Zhonchigal dialect, N = Nisheigram dialect

G = Gambir dialect, D = Devoz dialect, K = Katar dialect

PIIr. *br/*bʰr

In general: Ash. (M) bl, (T/S) bŕ/bř, Kt. bř, Pr. w, NKal. br, Tr. br

PIIr. *bʰraHtar- "brother"

> Ash. (M) <bla>, (T) <bŕa>, (S) <bř′â>

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) břo

> Pr. wayˈī ~ wayˈə

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <brā>, (N) <brâ> ~ <brā>

> Tr. (G) <br′â> ~ <brā>

PIIr. *ćr

In general: Ash. str, Kt. c̣, Pr. ṭ, NKal. c̣, Tr. c̣ (?)

PIIr. *Haćru- "tear" + *-ka-

> Ash. (S) <istrʹuː>

> Kt. (W) ac̣í ~ ac̣yú, (NE) ac̣í, (SE) ac̣ǘ

(PIIr. *ćrau̯ni- "buttocks" > "thigh") > Pr. ṭo

(PIIr. *ćrāu̯aH- "call") > NKal. (Zh) <čā>, (N) <c̣ā>

PIIr. *ćš (*ćć)

In general: Ash. c/ć (/ts/), Kt. ċ (/ts/), Pr. ċ (/ts/), NKal. c/ć/ċ (/ts/), Tr. ć/ċ (/ts/)

PIIr. *Hr̥ćša- "bear"

> Ash. (M/T) <īc>, (S) <′ić>

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) iċ

(PIIr. *taćš-a- "to hew") > Pr. -yeċ- ~ -yoċ-

> NKal. (N) <oć> ~ <oċ>

> Tr. <v′oć>

PIIr. *dr/*dʰr

In general: Ash. dr, Kt. (W/SE) dr, (NE) dër ~ dur, Pr. r, NKal. dr, Tr. dr (?)

PIIr. *drau̯na- "bow"

> Ash. (M/T) <drō̃>, (S) <dr′oː˜>

> Kt. (W) dru, (NE) durṹ, (SE) drũ

> Pr. wurˈū

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <drū̃>, (N) <dru˜-paṭa>

PIIr. *di̯/*dʰi̯

In general: Ash. z, Kt. ǰ, Pr. ǰ, NKal. ǰ, Tr. ž

PIIr. *madʰi̯a- "middle"

> Ash. (M) <mäz>, (T) <məz>, (S) <pam′az>

> Kt. (W) pimíǰ, (NE) pimíč, (SE) pamǘč

> Pr. munǰ

> NKal. (N) <maǰm'ö>

> Tr. (D) <mǝžiw>

PIIr. *gr/*gʰr

In general: Ash. (M) gl, (T/S) gŕ/gř, Kt. gř, Pr. g, NKal. gr, Tr. gr (?)

PIIr. *grāma- "bunch, community, village"

> Ash. (M) <glam>, (S) <gř′âm>

> Kt. (W) gřom ~ gřum, (NE) gřom, (SE) gřom

> Pr. gim ~ gǝm

> NKal. (N) <grâm> ~ <grām>

PIIr. *kr

In general: Ash. (M) kl, (T/S) kŕ/kř, Kt. kř, Pr. k, NKal. kr, Tr. kr (?)

PIIr. *krāmH- "to step" > "to thresh"

> Ash. (S) <kř′âːm-ie->

> Kt. (W) křamřé-, (SE) křamë́-

> Pr. kim-

(PIIr. *krai̯ć- "to press" > "discarded millet ear") > NKal. (Zh) krĩċ, (N) <kre˜ć> ~ <krenċ>

PIIr. *mb/*mbʰ

In general: Ash. m (?), Kt. m, Pr. b, NKal. m, Tr. m (?)

PIIr. *stambʰa- "pillar, support" > "tree"

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) štum "tree"

> Pr. üštüb ~ üšty'ub ~ üštyüb "tree"

> NKal. (N) <üst'üm> 

PIIr. *ms

In general: Ash. s, Kt. s, Pr. s, NKal. s, Tr. s (?)

PIIr. *māms-a- "flesh"

> Ash. (S) <m′os>

> Kt. (W/SE) mus

> Pr. musˈuk

> NKal. (N) <mus> 

PIIr. *nč

In general: Ash. nc/˜ć (/˜ts/), Kt. č, Pr. č, NKal. nč/˜č, Tr. ˜č

PIIr. *panča "five"

> Ash. (M) <ponc> ~ <punc>, (T) <pọ̄nc> ~ <pūnč>, (S) <p′o˜ć>

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) puč

> Pr. wuč ~ wučˈū

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <pūč>, (N) <ponč> ~ <pu˜č>

> Tr. (G) <p′o˜č>

PIIr. *nd/*ndʰ

In general: Ash. n, Kt. n, Pr. d, NKal. n, Tr. n (?)

PIIr. *kHand-a- "to laugh"

> Ash. (S) <koːn-ie->

> Kt. (W/NE) këné-, (SE) kanë́-

(+ *Hu̯i-) > Pr. wöd-

> NKal. (Wg/Zh/N) <kan->

PIIr. *ng/*ngʰ

In general: Ash. ŋ (?), Kt. ŋ, Pr. g, NKal. ŋ, Tr. ŋ (?) 

PIIr. *HanguštHa- "finger" > "finger ring"

> Kt. (NE) aŋṣtĩ́ ~ aŋṣtyẽ́, (SE) akṣtü̃́ 

(PIIr. *ȷ́angʰara- "ankle") > Pr. wuzˈogur "knee"

> NKal. (Zh) aŋüštë́, (N) <aŋust'a> 

PIIr. *nt

In general: Ash. nt/˜t, Kt. t, Pr. t, NKal. nt/˜t, Tr. ˜t

PIIr. *Hdant- "tooth"

> Ash. (M) <dont> ~ <dunt>, (T) <dont>, (S) <d′o˜t>

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) dut

> Pr. letˈem ~ letˈəm

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <dū̃t>, (N) <dõt> ~ <dũt>

> Tr. (G) <d′u˜t>

PIIr. *pr

In general: Ash. (M) pl, (T/S) pŕ/př, Kt. př, Pr. p, NKal. pr, Tr. pr

PIIr. *pra-daH- "to give"

> Ash. (M) <pl->, (T) <pŕ->, (S) <přoː-ta> "given"

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) přé- 

> Pr. -pli-

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) pr-, (N) <pra->

> Tr. (D) <pre->

PIIr. *rn

In general: Ash. r, Kt. r, Pr. r, NKal. r, Tr. r (?)

PIIr. *Hu̯r̥HnaH- "wool" + *-ka-

> Ash. (S) <vor′oːk>

> Kt. (W/NE) vërúk, (SE) varúk

> Pr. wurˈug

> NKal. (Zh) warë́k, (N) <varak> ~ <war'ak>

PIIr. *rš

In general: Ash. ṣ, Kt. ṣ, Pr. ṣ, NKal. ṣ, Tr. ṣ (?)

PIIr. *(a)rša- "bull" + *-ka-

Ash. (S) <âṣ′a>

Kt. (W/NE) aṣë́, (SE) aẓé

(PIIr. *pāršni- "heel") > Pr. wəṣˈə

NKal. (Zh) aṣë́, (N) <âṣe-dila> ~ <aṣẽdil'a> "three-year-old bull"

PIIr. *rt

Synchronic intervocalic: Ash. ṛ, Kt. ř, Pr. r (?), NKal. ṛ (?), Tr. ṛ (?)

PIIr. *u̯artakaH- ~ *u̯artikaH- "quail, partridge"

> Ash. (M) <'uṛe> ~ <'uṛə>, (T) <u'wŕɛ>, (S) <uvřʹa>

> Kt. (W) vëřë́, (NE) uřë́, (SE) vuřë́

(earlier *ə-wri (?)) > Pr. əw'ī

Synchronic word-final: Ash. ṭ, Kt. ṭ, Pr. ṭ (?), NKal. ṭ, Tr. ṭ

PIIr. *u̯arta- "round object" > "stone"

> Ash. (M/T) <wāṭ>, (S) <v′âːṭ>

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) voṭ

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <wāṭ>, (N) <vâṭ> ~ <wāṭ>

> Tr. (G) <v′âṭ>, (D) <waṭ>

PIIr. *sć

In general: Ash. c/ć (/ts/), Kt. ċ (/ts/), Pr. z, NKal. c/ć/ċ (/ts/), Tr. ć/ċ (/ts/) (?)

PIIr. *upa-sćāda- ~ *upa-sćādiH- "covering" > "boot, shoe"

> Ash. (M/T) <wa'ca>, (S) <vâć′â>

> Kt. (W/NE) vëċó, (SE) vaċó

> Pr. wazˈəl ~ wəzˈəl

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <wac'ai>, (N) <oćä> ~ <oċ'ä>

PIIr. *st/*št

In general: Ash. st, Kt. št, Pr. st, NKal. (Wg/Zh) št, (N) st, Tr. št

PIIr. *ȷ́ʰasta- > *dasta- "hand"

> Ash. (M) <dus>, (T) <dọ̄s>, (S) <dʹost>

> Kt. (W) dušt, (NE) dušt, (SE) düš(t)

> Pr. lust

> NKal. (Wg) <dōšt>, (Zh) došt, (N) <dost>

> Tr. (G) <d′öš>

PIIr. *tr

In general: Ash. tr, Kt. (W/SE) tr, (NE) tër, Pr. ṭ, NKal. tr, Tr. tr

PIIr. *trai̯as "three" 

> Ash. (M) <trɛ>, (T) <trä> ~ <tre>, (S) <tr′a>

> Kt. (W/SE) tre, (NE) tëré

(PIIr. *trasa- "trembling" > "avalanche") > Pr. wuṭˈus

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) trē, (N) <tre>

> Tr. <tr′e>

PIIr. *t-t/*d-t

In general: Ash. t, Kt. t, Pr. t (?), NKal. t, Tr. t (?)

PIIr. *pra-dHta- "given" + *-ka-

> Ash. (M) <plōte>, (T) <pŕōtä>, (S) <přoː-ta>

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) ptë

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <partō>, (N) <prato->

PIIr. *tu̯

In general: Ash. t, Kt. (W/NE) tëv, (SE) t, Pr. p, NKal. t, Tr. t

PIIr. *čatu̯āras "four"

> Ash. (M) <ca'tā> ~ <cə'tā>, (T) <ca'tā>, (S) <ćâtʹâː>

> Kt. (W/NE) štëvó, (SE) što

> Pr. čpu ~ čpū

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <čat'ā>, (N) <čatâ> ~ <čat'ā>

> Tr. (G) <čât′â> 

PIIr. *ti̯

In general: Ash. c/ć (/ts/), Kt. č, Pr. č, NKal. č, Tr. č

PIIr. *marti̯a- "man, mortal"

> Ash. (M/T) <mac>, (S) <m′âć>

> Kt. (W) moč ~ muč, (NE) moč, (SE) moč

> Pr. məč

> NKal. (Wg) <mā̆č>, (Zh) māč, (N) <mâč> ~ <māč>

(earlier *mač-bi "man-seed") > Tr. <maǰbī́>

Proto-Nuristani consonant clusters

Based on the above correspondence sets, the following reflexes of Proto-Indo-Iranian consonant clusters in Proto-Nuristani can be tentatively established.

PIIr. > PNur.

*br/*bʰr > *br

*ćr > *ċr

*ćš (*ćć) > *ċċ

*dr/*dʰr > *dr

*di̯/*dʰi̯ > *ǰǰ

*gr/*gʰr > *gr

*kr > *kr

*mb/*mbʰ > *mb

*ms > *s (or *ns?)

*nč > *nč

*nd/*ndʰ > *nd

*ng/*ngʰ > *ng

*nt > *nt

*pr > *pr

*rn > *rr 

*rš > *rs

*rt > *rt

*sć > *sċ

*st/*št > *št

*tr > *tr

*t-t/*d-t > *tt

*tu̯ > *tw

*ti̯ > *čč

References

• Morgenstierne, Georg. (1929). The Language of the Ashkun Kafirs. Oslo, Norway: Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap 2.
• Morgenstierne, Georg. (1934). Additional Notes on Ashkun. Oslo, Norway: Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap 7.
• Morgenstierne, Georg. (1952). Linguistic Gleanings from Nuristan. Oslo, Norway: Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap 16.
• Morgenstierne, Georg. (1954). The Waigali Language. Oslo, Norway: Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap 17.
• Strand, Richard F. (1999-2024). Richard Strand's Nuristân Site. https://nuristan.info/
• Buddruss, G.; Degener, A. (2017). Materialien zur Prasun-Sprache des afghanischen Hindukusch. Harvard Oriental Series 80. Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA. 
• Tāza, Samī'ullāh. (2017). Farhang-i Zabān-i Nuristānī (Kalaṣə-alā). Kabul: Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL).
• Degener, Almuth (2022). The Wolf and the Kids in the Devozi dialect of Tregami. International Journal of Diachronic Linguistics and Linguistic Reconstruction, vol. 19. 
• Halfmann, Jakob (2024). A Grammatical Description of the Katë Language (Nuristani) (PhD thesis). Cologne: University of Cologne.
• Halfmann, Jakob (2025). The Diversification of Indo-Iranian and the Position of the Nuristani Languages. Wiesbaden: Reichert.