Appendix 1: Reflexes of Indo-Iranian words in Nuristani

This post consists of words in Nuristani that are inherited and have supporting Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstructions alongside the proposed Proto-Nuristani reconstruction. This list is continually updated.

Parentheses in reconstructions are uncertain segments, while brackets indicate reconstructible segments (for example, *ek[a/ā] implies that *eka and *ekā are both reconstructible.)

(For abbreviations and sources, see this post. For Nuristani orthographic conventions, see this post.)

(1) PIIr. *panča "five" > PNur. *panča

> Ash. (M) <ponc> ~ <punc> /põċ/ ~ /pũċ/, (T) <pọ̄nc> ~ <pūnč> /põċ/ ~ /pũċ/, (S) <p′o˜ć> /põċ/

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) puč

> Pr. wuč ~ wučˈū /wuč/ ~ /wučú/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <pūč> /puč/, (N) <ponč> ~ <pu˜č> /põċ/ ~ /pũċ/

> Tr. (G) <p′o˜č> /põč/

(2) PIIr. *nápāt- "grandson" > PNur. *napā(k/t)a-

> Ash. (M) <'nawä̃> ~ <'nʌwa> /náva/, (T) <na'wǟ> /navá/, (S) <nav'a> /nëvë́/

> Kt. (W) nëvók, (NE) nëvó, (SE) navó

> Pr. nawˈag ~ newˈag ~ nəwˈag ~ nowˈag /nëvág/

> NKal. (Wg) <nãw'ā> /navā́/, (Zh) <naw'ā> /navā́/, (N) <navâ˜> /navā̃́/

(3) PIIr. *bʰau̯H-a- "to be, become" > PNur. *bo-

> Ash. (M/T) <b-> /b-/, (S) <b′o-> /bó-/

> Kt. (W) bë́- ~ bú-, (NE/SE) bú-

> Pr. w- /v-/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <b-> /b-/, (N) <bi-> ~ <bü-> /bi-/ ~ /bü-/

> Tr. (D) <b-> /b-/

(4) PIIr. *a-bʰakš-ta- "not eaten" > PNur. *abak(š)ta- "hunger"

> Ash. (M) <a'wat> ~ <awata> /ávat/ ~ /avata/, (T) <'awətä> /ávëta/, (S) <âb′ot> /abót/

> Kt. (W) avtë́, (NE/SE) ṓtë

> Pr. wut- /vut-/ "to be hungry"

> NKal. (Wg) <autə> /avtë́/, (Zh) <aut'ā> /avtā́/, (N) <âta> ~ <āta> /ātá/

(5) PIIr. *tuH-am "you (singular)" > PNur. *tu(wa)

> Ash. (M/T) <tū> /tu/, (S) <t′u> /tu/

> Kt. (W/NE) tyu, (SE) tü

> Pr. üo ~ <üy′u> /üyú/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <tǖ> /tü/, (N) <tü> /tü/

> Tr. (G/D) <tu> /tu/

(6) PIIr. *bʰraHtar- "brother" > PNur. *brāta(r)-

> Ash. (M) <bla> /bla/, (T) <bŕa> /břa/, (S) <bř′â> /břa/

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) břo

> Pr. wayˈī ~ wayˈə /vayë́/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <brā> /brā/, (N) <brâ> ~ <brā> /brā/

> Tr. (G) <br′â> ~ <brā> /brā/

(7) PIIr. *du̯aH > *duu̯aH "two" > PNur. *du(wā)

> Ash. (M) <du> /du/, (T) <dọ̄> ~ <dū> /du/, (S) <d′u> /du/

> Kt. (W/NE) dyu, (SE) dü

> Pr. lǖ ~ ülǖ /lü/ ~ /ülǘ/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <dǖ> /dü/, (N) <dü> /dü/

> Tr. (G) <d′u> ~ <du> /du/, (D) <dū> /du/

(8) PIIr. *upa-sćāda- ~ *upa-sćādiH- "covering" > PNur. *upasċād[a-/i-] "boot, shoe"

> Ash. (M/T) <wa'ca> /vaċá/, (S) <vâć′â> /vaċá/

> Kt. (W/NE) vëċó, (SE) vaċó

> Pr. wazˈəl ~ wəzˈəl /vëzë́l/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <wac'ai> /vaċay/, (N) <oćä> ~ <oċ'ä> /oċä́/

(9) PIIr. *kaništHa- "youngest" + *-ka- > PNur. *kaništaka- "younger"

> Ash. (M) <kaṇi'štāk> /kaništā́k/, (T) <kēṇištāk> /keništā́k/, (S) <kaṇ'ist> /këṇíst/

> Kt. (W) křëštë́, (NE) kaňṣtë́, (SE) kaňë́štë

> NKal. (Wg) <kyē̃što> /kyẽšto/ (Zh) <kȫ̃štȫ> /köštö/, (N) <kö˜stö> ~ <kö̃st'ö> /kö̃stö́/

(10) PIIr. *Hai̯ka- "one" > PNur. *ek[a/ā] "a; one"

> Ash. (M/T) <a> /a/, (S) <â> /a/

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) e

> Pr. ipün /ipǘn/ (< *i-pün "one lump")

> NKal. (N) <e> ~ <ev> ~ <ew> /e/ ~ /ev/

> Tr. (G) <y′o> /yo/, (D) <yo> /yo/

(11) post-PIIr. *gau̯dʰuma- "wheat" > PNur. *goduma-

> Ash. (M) <gōm> ~ <gọ̄m> /gōm/, (T) <gūm> /gūm/, (S) <g′oːm> /gōm/

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) gum

> Pr. ülüm /ülǘm/

> NKal. (Wg) <gum> /gum/, (Zh) <gūm> /gūm/, (N) <gum> /gum/

> Tr. (G) <g′um> /gum/

(12) PIIr. *ā-ga-sća- "to go" > PNur. *āgasċ-

> Kt. (W) áċe-, (NE/SE) áċë-

(13) PIIr. *suHar-i̯aH- "sun" > PNur. *s(uw)ayā-

> Ash. (M) <so> /so/, (T) <sọ̄> /so/, (S) <s′o> /so/

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) su

> Pr. üsük /üsǘk/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <sōi> /soy/, (N) <sö> /sö/

> Tr. (G) <s′ä˜> /sä̃/

(14) PIIr. *kai̯ća- "hair" > PNur. *keċa- "markhor hair"

> Ash. (S) <ć′as> /ċës/

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) keċ

> NKal. (Wg) <kyec> /kyeċ/, (Zh) <kēc> ~ <kē̃c> /keċ/ ~ /kẽċ/, (N) <kẽċ> /kẽċ/

> Tr. (G) <k′e˜ć> /kẽċ/

(15) PIIr. *ȷ́ʰai̯ana- "winter" > PNur. *j̈ena-

> Ash. (M) <zē̃ĩ> /zẽy/, (T) <zē̃> /zẽ/, (S) <zʹia˜> /zyë̃/

> Kt. (NE) zẽ, (SE) j̈ẽ

> Pr. iznera /íznera/

> NKal. (Wg) <zǟ̃> /zä̃/ (Zh) zň̩, (N) <zẽ> /zẽ/

> Tr. (G) <a-ź′e˜> /aj̈ẽ́/

(16) PIIr. *čarman- "skin" > PNur. *čārma(n)-

> Ash. (M) <cam> ~ <cʌm> /ċam/, (T) <cam> /ċam/, (S) <ćʹâm> /ċam/

> Kt. (W) čom ~ čum, (NE) čom, (SE) čom

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <čām> /čām/, (N) <čâm> ~ <čām> /čām/

(17) PIIr. *ǰʰantar- "killer" > PNur. *ǰanta(r)- "leopard"

> Kt. (W/NE) ǰut, (SE) ǰüt

> Pr. žüt ~ žütˈū /žüt/ ~ /žütú/

> NKal. (Wg) <ǰū̃ṭ> /ǰũṭ/, (Zh) <žȫ̃ṭ> /žö̃ṭ/ (N) <ǰũt> /ǰũt/

> Tr. (G) <ǰ′o˜ṭ> /ǰõṭ/ (D) <ǰõt> ~ <ǰū̃t> /ǰõt/ ~ /ǰũt/

(18) PIIr. *maHas- "moon" > PNur. *mās[ā-/i-]

> Ash. (M/T) <mā̆s> /mas/, (S) <m′âs> /mas/

> Kt. (W) mus, (NE/SE) mos

> Pr. masˈig /masíg/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <mās> /mās/, (N) <mâs> ~ <mās> /mās/

> Tr. (G) <m′âs> /mās/

(19) PIIr. *naHs- "nose" > PNur. *nāsa-

> Kt. (W) nus "boulder", (NE) nos "boulder", (SE) nos "boulder"

> Pr. nəs /nës/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <nās> /nās/, (N) <nâs> ~ <nās> /nās/

> Tr. (G) <nās> /nās/

(20) PIIr. *pHai̯na- "foam" + *-ka- > PNur. *penaka-

> Ash. (M) <pē̃ṛe> /peṇe/, (T) <piē̃ṛe> /pyeṇe/, (S) <přiaň′a> /přyëṇë́/

> Kt. (W) pëřë́, (NE) paňë́, (SE) přẽ

> NKal. (Zh) pň̩, (N) <pňei> /pňey/

(21) PIIr. *ȷ́ānu- "knee" > PNur. *j̈ānu-

> Kt. (W) zo ~ zu, (NE) zõ, (SE) j̈õ

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <zā̃> /zā̃/

(22) PIIr. *(H)rau̯ta- "intestines" > PNur. *řota-

> Ash. (M) <ẓō> /ẓo/, (T) <žō> /ẓo/, (S) <ẓ′o> /ẓo/

> Kt. (W) řu, (NE) řu "abdomen", (SE) řu

> NKal. (Wg) <ẓū> /ẓu/, (Zh) ẓu, (N) <vṛu> ~ <wřu> /vřu/

(23) PIIr. *du̯ar-a- "door" > PNur. *d(w)ara-

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) du

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <dō> /do/, (N) <dor> /dor/

> Tr. (G) <d′år> /dår/, (D) <dōr> /dor/

(24) PIIr. *Hi̯au̯Hasa- "grass" > PNur. *yosa-

> Ash. (M/T) <yūs> /yus/, (S) <i′os> /yos/

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) yus

> Pr. yüs ~ yüsˈū /yüs/ ~ /yüsú/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <yǖs> /yüs/, (N) <ius> ~ <yus> /yus/

> Tr. (D) <žus> /žus/

(25) PIIr. *trai̯as "three" > PNur. *tre(s)

> Ash. (M) <trɛ> /tre/, (T) <trä> ~ <tre> /tre/, (S) <tr′a> /trë/

> Kt. (W/SE) tre, (NE) tëré

> Pr. tčī /tči/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) trē /tre/, (N) <tre> /tre/

> Tr. <tr′e> /tre/

(26) PIIr. *Hu̯r̥HnaH- "wool" + *-ka- > PNur. *warrãka-

> Ash. (S) <vor′oːk> /vorōk/

> Kt. (W/NE) vërúk, (SE) varúk

> Pr. wurˈug /vurúg/

> NKal. (Zh) varë́k, (N) <varak> ~ <war'ak> /varák/

(27) PIIr. *ȷ́ʰasta- "hand" > PNur. *dasta-

> Ash. (M) <dus> /dus/, (T) <dọ̄s> /dos/, (S) <dʹost> /dost/

> Kt. (W) dušt, (NE) dušt, (SE) düš(t)

> Pr. lust /lust/

> NKal. (Wg) <dōšt> /došt/, (Zh) došt, (N) <dost> /dost/

(28) PIIr. *mastra- "brain" + *-ka- > PNur. *m[r]astaka-

> Ash. (M) <'mōstə> /mṓstë/, (S) <moːst′a> /mōstë́/

> Kt. (W) mřëštë́, (NE) mřëštë́, (SE) mřaštë́

> NKal. (Wg) <muštə> /muštë́/, (Zh) muštë́, (N) <must'a> /mustá/

(29) PIIr. *pra-dHta- "given" + *-ka- > PNur. *prattaka-

> Ash. (M) <plōte> /plōtë́/, (T) <pŕōtä> /přōtá/, (S) <přoː-ta> /přōtë́/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <partō> /partó-/, (N) <prato-> /prató-/

(30) PIIr. *Haćru- "tear" + *-ka- > PNur. *aċruka-

> Ash. (S) <istr′uː> /istrū́/

> Kt. (W) ac̣í ~ ac̣yú, (NE) ac̣í, (SE) ac̣ǘ

> Pr. üč'ǖ /üčǘ/

(31) PIIr. *pra-gāma- "kid" > PNur. *pragāma[ka]-

> Ash. (S) <přâːm′a> /přāmë́/

> Kt. (W) přómë ~ přúmë, (NE) přómë, (SE) přámë

> Pr. pum /pum/ "lamb"

> NKal. (Zh) prāmë́

(32) PIIr. *ȷ́ʰima- "snow" > PNur. *j̈ima-

> Ash. (M) <žim> ~ <žīm>, (T) <žīm>, (S) <ž′im> /žim/

> Kt. (W/NE) zim, (SE) j̈im

> NKal. (Wg) <zīm> /zim/, (Zh) zëm ~ zɨm, (N) <zim> /zim/

> Tr. <ź′im> /j̈im/

(33) PIIr. *Hu̯iHćati "twenty" > PNur. *wiċati

> Ash. (M/T) <wi'šī> /viší/, (S) <višʹi> /viší/

> Kt. (W/NE) vëċë́, (SE) viċí

> Pr. jū ~ zū /j̈u/ ~ /zu/

(34) PIIr. *ćákr̥-t- "dung, manure" > PNur. *ċakr̥ta-

> Ash. (S) <šʹiːṭ> /šīṭ/

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) ċiṭ

> Pr. žič ~ žičˈə /žič/ ~ /žičë́/

> NKal. (N) <ćoṭ> /ċoṭ/

(35) PIIr. *Hr̥ćša- "bear" > PNur. *r̥ċċa-

> Ash. (M/T) <īc> /iċ/, (S) <′ić> /iċ/

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) iċ

> Pr. <itrū> ~ <ütrˈū> /itrú/ ~ /ütrú/

> NKal. (N) <oć> ~ <oċ> /oċ/

> Tr. <v′oć> /voċ/

(36) PIIr. *drau̯na- "bow" > PNur. *drona-

> Ash. (M/T) <drō̃> /drō̃/, (S) <dr′oː˜> /drō̃/

> Kt. (W) dru, (NE) durṹ, (SE) drũ

> Pr. wurˈū /vurú/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <drū̃> /drū̃/, (N) <dru˜-paṭa> /drũ-paṭá/

(37) PIIr. *madʰi̯a- "middle" > PNur. *maǰǰa-

> Ash. (M) <mäz> /maz/, (T) <məz> /mëz/, (S) <pam′az> /pëmë́z/

> Kt. (W) pimíǰ, (NE) pimíč, (SE) pamǘč

> Pr. munǰ /munǰ/

> NKal. (N) <maǰm'ö> /maǰmö́/

> Tr. (D) <mǝžiw> /mëžív/

(38) PIIr. *grāma- "bunch, community, village" > PNur. *grāma-

> Ash. (M) <glam> /glam/, (S) <gř′âm> /gřam/

> Kt. (W) gřom ~ gřum, (NE) gřom, (SE) gřom

> Pr. gim ~ gǝm /gim/ ~ /gǝm/

> NKal. (N) <grâm> ~ <grām> /grām/

(39) PIIr. *krāmH- "to step" > PNur. *krām- "to thresh"

> Ash. (S) <kř′âːm-ie-> /křā́mye-/

> Kt. (W) křamřé-, (SE) křamë́-

> Pr. kim- /kim-/

(40) PIIr. *stambʰa- "pillar, support" > PNur. *stamba- "pillar, support; tree"

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) štum "tree"

> Pr. üštüb ~ üšty'ub ~ üštyüb /üštǘb/ ~  /üštyúb/ ~ /üštyǘb/ "tree"

> NKal. (N) <üst'üm> /üstǘm/

(41) PIIr. *māms-a- "flesh" > PNur. *masa[ka]-

> Ash. (S) <m′os> /mos/

> Kt. (W/SE) mus

> Pr. musˈuk /musúk/

> NKal. (N) <mus> /mus/

(42) PIIr. *kHand-a- "to laugh" > PNur. *[wi-]kand-

> Ash. (S) <koːn-ie-> /kōnye-/

> Kt. (W/NE) këné-, (SE) kanë́-

> Pr. wöd- /vöd-/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh/N) <kan-> /kan-/

(43) PIIr. *HanguštHa- "finger" + *-ka- > PNur. *anguštaka- "finger ring"

> Kt. (NE) aŋṣtĩ́ ~ aŋṣtyẽ́, (SE) akṣtü̃́ 

> NKal. (Zh) aŋüštë́, (N) <aŋust'a> /aŋustá/

(44) PIIr. *Hdant- "tooth" > PNur. *dantā-

> Ash. (M) <dont> ~ <dunt> /dõt/ ~ /dũt/, (T) <dont> /dõt/, (S) <d′o˜t> /dõt/

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) dut

> Pr. letˈem ~ letˈəm /letë́m/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <dū̃t> /dũt/, (N) <dõt> ~ <dũt> /dõt/ ~ /dũt/

> Tr. (G) <d′u˜t> /dũt/

(45) PIIr. *pra-daH- "to give" > PNur. *prade-

> Ash. (M) <pl-> /pl-/, (T) <pŕ-> /př-/, (S) <přoː-ta> /přōtë́/ "given"

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) přé- 

> Pr. -pli- /-pli-/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <pr-> /pr-/, (N) <pra-> /pra-/

> Tr. (D) <pre-> /pre-/

(46) PIIr. *(a)rša- "bull" + *-ka- > PNur. *arsaka-

Ash. (S) <âṣ′a> /aṣë́/

Kt. (W/NE) aṣë́, (SE) aẓé

NKal. (Zh) aṣë́, (N) <âṣe-dila> ~ <aṣẽdil'a> /aṣedilá/ "three-year-old bull"

(47) PIIr. *u̯artakaH- ~ *u̯artikaH- "quail, partridge" > PNur. *wart[a/i]kā-

> Ash. (M) <'uṛe> ~ <'uṛə> /uṛë́/, (T) <u'wŕɛ> /uvřë́/, (S) <uvřʹa> /uvřë́/

> Kt. (W) vëřë́, (NE) uřë́, (SE) vuřë́

> Pr. əwˈī /ëví/

(48) PIIr. *u̯arta- "round object" > PNur. *wārta- "stone"

> Ash. (M/T) <wāṭ> /vāṭ/, (S) <v′âːṭ> /vāṭ/

> Kt. (W/NE/SE) voṭ

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <wāṭ> /vāṭ/, (N) <vâṭ> ~ <wāṭ> /vāṭ/

> Tr. (G) <v′âṭ> /vāṭ/, (D) <waṭ> /vaṭ/

(49) PIIr. *čatu̯āras "four" > PNur. *čatwāra(s)

> Ash. (M) <ca'tā> ~ <cə'tā> /ċatā́/, (T) <ca'tā> /ċatā́/, (S) <ćâtʹâː> /ċatā́/

> Kt. (W/NE) štëvó, (SE) što

> Pr. čpu ~ čpū /čpu/

> NKal. (Wg/Zh) <čat'ā> /čatā́/, (N) <čatâ> ~ <čat'ā> /čatā́/

> Tr. (G) <čât′â> /čātā́/

(50) PIIr. *marti̯a- "man, mortal" > PNur. *mārčča-

> Ash. (M/T) <mac> /maċ/, (S) <m′âć> /maċ/

> Kt. (W) moč ~ muč, (NE) moč, (SE) moč

> Pr. məč /mëč/

> NKal. (Wg) <mā̆č> /māč/, (Zh) māč, (N) <mâč> ~ <māč> /māč/

(earlier *mač-bi "man-seed") > Tr. <maǰbī́> /maǰbí/

(51) PIIr. *Hantar "between, inside, within" > PNur. *ãtar[a/i]-

> Ash. (M) <utẽi> /utẽ́y/, (S) <ota> /otë/

> Kt. (W/NE) atú, (SE) atë́

> Pr. t- /t-/

> NKal. (Wg) <atēr> ~ <atǝr-křə̃> /atë́r/, (Zh) <atr'e> /atré/ (N) <at'er> /atér/

> Tr. (D) <atǝr> /atë́r/

(52) PIIr. *ȷ́ʰr̥dai̯a- "heart" > PNur. *j̈r̥daya-

> Ash. (M/T) <ži'dī> /židí/, (S) <žid′i> /židí/

> Kt. (W/NE) zërë́, (SE) j̈arë́

> Pr. zər ~ zir /zër/ ~ /zir/

> NKal. (Wg) <zō> /zo/, (Zh) zo /zo/, (N) zö /zö/

> Tr. (G) <ź′o> /j̈o/

(53) PIIr. *riȷ́ʰ-a- "to lick" > PNur. *řij̈- (later *lij̈-)

> Ash. (S) <leiź-i′e-> /leyj̈yé-/

> Kt. (W/NE) lëzé-, (SE) lij̈ë́-

(54) PIIr. *pr̥Hu̯a- "before" > PNur. *pawwa- "last year"

> Ash. (M) <pöw> /pow/, (T) <pȫw> /pow/, (S) <p′au> /pëw/

> Kt. (W) puv, (SE) pū

> NKal. (Zh) pöv, (N) <pöv> /pöv/

(55) PIIr. *Hr̥Hš(i̯)a- "envy" > PNur. *ārša- "covetousness, desire"

> Kt. (SE) oṣ

> NKal. (Zh) āṣ

(56) PIIr. *ćr̥Has- "head" > PNur. *ċarⁱa(s)- (Halfmann 2025)

> Kt. (W) ċiř "top", (NE) ċyuř "top", (SE) ċeř "top"

(*ċarⁱa-ka-) > Pr. ǰī /ǰi/

(57) PIIr. *ćr̥Hu̯a- "horn" > PNur. *ċawwa- "markhor", *ċruwa- "horn"

(*ċawwa-) > Ash. <saut′âṛ> /sëw-táṛ/ "hunt"

(*ċruwa-) > Pr. üč'ü /üčǘ/

(*ċawwa-) > NKal. (Zh) ċöv (N) <ćöv> /ċöv/

(58) PIIr. *gr̥Hi- "mountain" > PNur. *garⁱi- "stone"

> Pr. īr /ir/

(59) PIIr. *dr̥Hgʰa- "long" > PNur. *darⁱga-tana-ka-

> Kt. (W) drëgéř ~ drëgë́ř, (NE) dërëgéň, (SE) drëŋë́ň